Agriculture

Books reviewed in this section

Productive agricultural land is the most fundamental resource for all rural communities and nations. An agriculture which forms a basis for rural and national self-reliance in food production depends upon equitable distribution of this resource. Without secure access to land, the tenant farm family is not in a position to carry out many of the long-term improvements (such as terracing, composting, and tree planting) that may be needed, nor are they in the position to benefit from the multitude of small farm programs sponsored by national agriculture departments and international and bilateral aid agencies. The landless farm laborer is often ignored entirely, though he or she is most vulnerable to unemployment from mechanization. Participation in agricultural production, it has been repeatedly demonstrated, is the only clear guarantee of participation in food consumption.

The concentration of land holdings in a few hands appears to be a major engine of environmental destruction as well, forcing subsistence cultivators onto marginal lands and hillsides. The loss of topsoil that follows is swift and often irreversible. Deforestation becomes a way of life as existence is scratched from the land in a capital-consuming, desperate process.

The amount of productive land lost to deforestation and desertification is staggering, and the rate of loss is increasing. A central concern of agriculture must therefore be a sustainable resource base—soil conservation, an assured supply of nutrients, and a buffer from the inflationary costs of inputs that accompany the fossil fuel-based agriculture of the rich countries. The elements needed for ecologically responsible agricultural systems exist in most parts of the world. In developing such approaches, indigenous agricultural systems deserve special attention, for they often reflect important ecological interactions and yield a variety of crops.

In any agricultural system, crop diversity is usually a key to sustainability. There must be a balance between production of cash crops for income, and production of subsistence crops for direct consumption. Cash crops can allow a greater flexibility and access to crucial tools and inputs that would otherwise be unobtainable, and they usually mean a higher value production from a particular piece of land. Yet cash crops often bring with them dependency on global market forces for the sale of produce and for the supply of fertilizers. They also tend to bring a reduction in crop diversity. All of these factors significantly increase the risks facing farmers. Cash crops can lead to a mixing of agricultural soils for short-term gain, reducing both short-term food supplies and long-term productivity of the land. Cash cropping also contributes to the concentration of landholdings, displacement of tenant farmers, and abandonment of traditional social mechanisms of redistribution and collective welfare.

The social aspects of the organization of agriculture are major considerations in the search for appropriate agricultural strategies. What does a new agricultural system do to social relations, the extent to which extended families continue to take responsibility for all their members? What does a new agricultural system do to the composition and character of rural communities?

In recent years there has been a rethinking of the role of the small farmer in agricultural research. There is now strong evidence that to be successful, research programs must include small farmers in thinking about what changes might be tried, and in testing and evaluating proposed improvements in the farming system before widespread dissemination is attempted. When typical farmers are partners in the research teams, experience has shown that innovations coming out of the research program are far more likely to be acceptable.

When all of these concerns are taken into account, several avenues for appropriate technologies seem evident. There is a need for increased emphasis on intensive food production. Growing fruits and vegetables in home gardens can be done by nearly every family. Relatively high production can be obtained from a small area, and the increased variety in the family diet has clear nutritional advantages.

Farming systems that combine agriculture with forestry bring a varied and higher total production from multiple tiers of plants and trees. Reduced pest problems result, as a more diverse plant environment offers less shelter to pests and more to their predators. More stability over time is also assured as differing crops provide protection from weather and market fluctuations. Alternating tree crops with row crops enables a sustainable productive agriculture as protected topsoil and variety of plant life mean that soil fertility can be maintained. The addition of animals, including livestock, fish, and bees into these farming systems can also be important in providing additional food, income and fertilizer

These complimentary themes can be found throughout the entries included in this chapter; more synthesis needs to be done in actual programs. As You Sow paints a saddening picture of the negative social consequences in small communities that have accompanied the transitions from family farms to huge agribusiness operations in California. This process of decay through growth in landholdings involves a substantial reduction in the number of opportunities for rural people to develop basic business, managerial, and entrepreneurial skills.

The Art of the Informal Agricultural Survey provides excellent advice to anyone gathering information, emphasizing "cheap, practical, and fast .... Grubbing out information infields, market places, bars, and fly-ridden tea shops. " The same techniques can be applied in urban areas as well. If your project requires effective information gathering, you must read this piece.

Small Farm Development is an exceptionally valuable and highly readable book. It illuminates the dynamics, characteristics, and constraints of small farms in the tropics. It should be required reading for those working on farming systems, tools and equipment, and related activities such as farm co-ops.

Two Ears of Corn is filled with valuable advice on how to successfully work with a local community to improve agricultural practices. Training and Visit Extension documents a low-cost extension approach which can help farmers improve their basic practices with almost no cash investment, yet with a high chance of achieving higher production. This approach relies heavily on village-level workers with a low educational background, a strategy somewhat similar to the use of "barefoot doctor" health workers.

Many of the publications included offer insight and practical considerations relevant to the creation of sustainable agricultural systems and agroforestry combinations. The journals also provide contact with the worldwide network of enthusiastic and imaginative people working in this field.

Reference books on soils, seeds, crops and fertilizers are reviewed. Soil testing, seed production, composting and soil conservation (controlling erosion and gully formation) are some of the topics covered here. The proper protection of workers from pesticides is addressed by several books, while Integrated Pest Management reviews the techniques used to control pests while minimizing pesticide use.

Three volumes introduce the technical considerations for small-scale irrigation efforts. Irrigation is the biggest single factor in raising farm yields. As its proper planning from a technical and environmental viewpoint call be quite complicated, these are welcome references.

Intensive gardening is the topic of ten entries. The manuals from Bangladesh, Peru, Jamaica, and the Philippines are highly recommended references, to go with How to Grow More Vegetables from the United States.

The last section includes a number of books on raising animals under various climatic conditions. The final entry in this group is the encyclopedic Tropical Feeds, a unique reference covering nutritional content and uses of 650 tropical feeds, most of them plants.

Small Farm Development: Understanding and Improving Farming Systems in the Humid Tropics, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-214, book, 160 pages, by Richard Harwood, 1979, Westview Press, out of print.

The author states, "In our impatience with 'backward' small farmers and in our haste to rapidly 'commercialize' them, we have overlooked key aspects of their farming systems that could enhance efforts to increase food production and improve rural well-being. To accomplish the development of a greater number of the world's small farms, shifts in emphasis must be made in our thinking, in our technological research, and in our communications with farmers."

Better understanding and analysis of the bulk of the small farm production systems in the South is the theme of this important book. The author discusses with great depth and sensitivity the issues and options facing resource-limited small farmers in the tropics. He suggests that a "purposeful blending of traditional and modern technologies may well prove the key to starting the most disadvantaged farmers along a more rapid development path."

In the first part of his book, Harwood presents an overview of small farms from subsistence hunting-gathering to primary mechanized operations. He endorses a development approach of scientists, extension workers, and farmers working in close cooperation in farming areas. "The agricultural development specialist must remain constantly aware of—and on guard against—the natural tendency to superimpose his own values on those of the farmer. The reality that faces the farmer who ekes out his existence from a mere half-hectare of poor land can only be understood—if it is seen as he sees it."

The second part of the book reviews critical factors in small farm development which are often overlooked or given little emphasis in development programs. Some examples of these factors include:

Animals in Mixed Farming Systems:

"Despite the almost universal interest of farmers in mixed crop-animal systems professionals in both crop and animal production commonly pursue research in pure crop systems or pure animal systems, without reference to the interactions between the two that increase the productivity of both. Fortunately, most farmers have no such inhibitions or prejudices. Science should do more for them."

Noncommercial Farm Activities:

"Fence rows are often used for noncommercial plantings as well as for their primary functions as field boundaries, enclosures for containment or exclusion of grazing animals, and erosion controls. There is evidence to indicate that the plant diversity and permanence of the fence row makes it a refuge for beneficial insects and predators. The relative rarity of pest outbreaks in highly diversified small farm areas where hedgerows and farmyard plantings are extensively used may be due to the net benefits of these traditional features."

Other chapters deal with resource and economic limitations of intensive and multiple cropping systems; economic determinants and resource optimization of micro-enterprises; farm mechanization requirements; and stability in farming systems. An excellent annotated bibliography is also included. Technical charts and graphs are balanced by photographs of farm families at work. All in all, this book is a fine blending of reasoned arguments for new directions in agricultural development projects. It should receive wide circulation among agriculturalists and development workers concerned with agriculture in the humid tropics of the South.

Two Ears of Corn: A Guide to People-Centered Agricultural Improvement, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05- 224, book, 264 pages, by Roland Bunch, 1982, $7.95 from World Neighbors, 5116 North Portland Avenue, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73112, USA; also available in Spanish and French; also available from TOOL.

A program beginning with a redefined goal of agricultural improvement which emphasizes the development of indigenous participation and capability rather than simply introducing production-raising techniques is more likely to yield long-term benefits, according to this guide for village-level program leaders. The importance of small-scale, local cultural values, feedback, and non-paternal methods of leadership is established in an informative, insightful text which draws from examples of both failures and successes throughout the world's villages. Includes advice for program planning, encouraging participation, technology choice, employee policy, socio-cultural surveys, marketing, and eventual phase-out of outside assistance. Applicable to non-agricultural programs also.

Highly recommended.

Understanding Small Farmers: Sociocultural Perspectives on Experimental Farm Trials, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-258, paper, 9 pages, by Robert Rhoades, 1982, from International Potato Center, Aptdo. 5969, Lima, Peru; or order publication no. PNAAN869, $1.17 from AID Document and Information Handling Facility, 7222 47th St., Suite 100, Chevy Chase, Maryland 20815, USA.

This is a good quick introduction to the reasons why understanding the farmer's perspective is vitally important to the success of efforts to develop improved agricultural practices through farm trials. The author points to seven essential questions: "1. Is the problem to be solved important to farmers? 2. Do farmers understand the trials? 3. Do farmers have time, inputs, and labor required by the improved technology? 4. Does the proposed technology make sense within the present farming system? 5. Is the mood favorable for investing in certain crops in a region? 6. Is the proposed change compatible with local preferences, beliefs, or community sanctions? 7. Do farmers believe the technology will hold up over the long term?"

"In the end, the acceptability of a technology depends on what the farmers actually do. This may not, as we have stressed, be the same as what they have told us. We can discover this only in a final stage of farmer testing where farmers themselves take over the new technology and incur all risks, costs, and benefits. Until this final step is taken, all other evaluations remain only suggestive of the technology's potential."

Insights of Outstanding Farmers, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-238, book, 114 pages, IRRI, 1985, $8.30 to highly developed countries, $2.50 to developing countries, plus $1.00 surface mail or $3.00 airmail postage, from Publications Office, International Rice Research Institute, P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines.

IRRI has brought together the stories of 14 outstanding rice farmers from different countries in this excellent book. These people provided their own background information and were interviewed for additional details. The result is a fascinating view of the circumstances, thinking and decision-making of these farmers. Many of them are very systematic in experimenting in their own fields. While these people are more representative of "leading" farmers than "average" farmers, their stories give the reader a better understanding of the small rice farmer and the technological changes that may benefit her or him. |

Readers with varied interests in rural development will find this a revealing book.

Farm Management Research for Small Farmer Development, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 41, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-280, book, 145 pages, by John I. Dillon and J. Brian Hardaker, 1981, $16.00 from UNIPUB.

Persons working on the improvement of small farm equipment, the development and introduction of new varieties and techniques, and any other innovations that affect the small farm as an enterprise will find this a valuable reference. The reader is reminded that small farmers usually make efficient use of their available resources, that important crop-crop and crop-animal interactions exist on most small farms, and that a good understanding of existing farming systems is necessary before potentially useful improvements can be identified. Most of the manual explains the elements essential to good survey strategies and techniques, interpretation of data, modeling of farm activities, and economic/financial evaluations of alternative choices.

This book should help the reader to systematically identify research project possibilities that are likely to lead to useful and economically viable technologies. This approach is far more likely to succeed than the common practice of choosing topics based on incomplete information and incorrect assumptions about what farmers are actually doing.

Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05- 127, booklet, 55 pages, by Daniel Benor and James Harrison, 1977, $6.95 from World Bank Publications, Box 7347-8619, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19170-8619, USA.

The System "has been put into operation in areas where the need is to improve the level of agricultural production by large numbers of farmers cultivating mostly small farms using low-level technology and usually traditional methods .... The cost to farmers is very small .... The smaller cultivators, who have an abundant supply of labor, may benefit at least as much as the larger farmers."

This low-cost extension system "uses village-level workers with comparatively low educational standards supported by subject matter specialists ...."

"In the Seyhan project in Turkey, farmers increased cotton yields from 1.7 tons to over 3 tons per hectare in three years. In Chambal, Rajesthan (India), farmers increased paddy yields from about 2.1 tons to over 3 tons per hectare in two years. Combined irrigated and unirrigated wheat yields in Chambal, Madhya Pradesh (India), rose from 1.3 tons to nearly 2 tons per hectare after one season and have since risen higher."

The author describes the common problems with extension programs: multiple roles (not just agricultural) expected of the extension worker, excessively large area of assignment for each worker, and theoretical pre-service training with no in-service training.

For a reformed extension service, the author recommends that extension workers report directly and only to the agricultural department, spend full time on agriculture, and make regular visits to farmers. "Contact farmers must be willing to try out practices recommended by the extension workers and be prepared to have other farmers visit their fields. But they should not be the community's most progressive farmers who are usually regarded as exceptional" and are not often followed by their neighbors.

After the simpler field management practices have led to higher incomes, extension workers should recommend to farmers "the minimum quantity of fertilizer which would noticeably increase their net yields and incomes, and teach the farmers how to make the best use of this amount—for example, when and how to apply it, and how to combine it with organic fertilizers."

"To remain effective, extension must be linked to a vigorous research program, well-tuned to the needs of the farmers. Without a network of field trials upon which new recommendations can he based and without continuous feedback to research from the fields, the extension service will soon have nothing to offer farmers, and the research institutions will lose touch with the problems real farmers face."

Training and Visit Extension, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-256, book, 202 pages, by Daniel Benor and Michael Baxter, 1984, $17.95 from World Bank Publications, Box 72478619, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19170-8619, USA.

This volume contains a more complete description of the extension system presented in Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System. The T&V system is essentially an intelligent simplification of conventional extension structures to create closer links between farmers and researchers, and, in particular, to make better use of farmers' resources with basic agricultural practices that require little or no investment of cash but some additional labor (e.g., "better seed, seedbed preparation, cultivation and weeding").

The initial dramatic success of this system in Turkey and India has led to a great deal of interest in applying it elsewhere. In some countries, a tendency to adopt the name and some of the form, but not the substance of the system, has meant disappointing results.

The successful functioning of an extension system requires more than simply a good organizational structure. In apparent recognition of the many forces that affect and hamper the effective functioning of the T&V system, in this volume the authors give considerable attention to the essential elements of the system that cannot be changed without diminishing its effectiveness. "Leadership of the extension service must be strong, active, innovative, and field oriented .... For T&V extension to have an impact, research must support it strongly, coordinate with extension, and tackle farmers' immediate problems; production recommendations taught to farmers must be relevant to their needs and resource conditions, be economically viable, and require only inputs that are actually available; and regular and special training of extension staff must be timely and specific to their needs. Most importantly, hard decisions have to be made in setting priorities, requiring concentration of efforts on a small number of feasible goals and a commitment to this system of professional agricultural extension. If any one of these requirements (or any of a number of other basic features of the system) is ignored, or is weak relative to others, the impact of the entire system is compromised."

There is much good advice here that is relevant to all kinds of appropriate technology development and extension activities.

Agricultural Extension, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-230, book, 308 pages, by Michael Gibbons and Richard Schroeder, 1984, available free of charge to development workers from Peace Corps; available to others from ERIC (order no. ED241775) and NTIS (accession no PB85 247278/AS).

Agricultural extension used to be conceived of as a one-way flow of technical information from a central source to the farmer to encourage him or her to undertake "correct" agricultural practices. This volume provides convincing evidence and examples of why it is important to understand the farmer's position and viewpoint, and to work with the farmer to identify priorities for improvements, before any "answers" are proposed. This volume emphasizes that small farmers are expert at what they do and are very familiar with the micro-environmental details of their land. Full of good advice based on long experience, this book should help new fieldworkers avoid many of the mistakes that have bedeviled agricultural extension programs in the past.

Alternative Agriculture, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-277, book, 448 pages, by the Committee on the Role of Alternative Farming Methods in Modern Production Agriculture, National Research Council, $22.95 to U.S., $26.25 overseas, from National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20415, USA.

Alternative agriculture has moved from the fringe to the mainstream with this study that has worldwide significance. The U.S. Government's National Research Council has issued a very enthusiastic report on the growing movement among farmers to "take greater advantage of natural processes and beneficial on-farm biological interactions, reduce off-farm input use, and improve the efficiency of their operations."

Alternative agriculture is defined as "... any system of food or fiber production that systematically pursues the following goals:

• More thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycles, nitrogen fixation, and pest-predator relationships into the agricultural production process;

• Reduction in the use of off-farm inputs with the greatest potential to harm the environment or the health of farmers and consumers;

• Greater productive use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal species;

• Improvement of the match between cropping patterns and the productive potential and physical limitations of agricultural lands to ensure long-term sustainability of current production levels; and

• Profitable and efficient production with emphasis on improved farm management and conservation of soil, water, energy, and biological resources. "The history and evolution of U.S. agriculture and the economic and environmental consequences of prevailing practices are first reviewed. Next is a presentation of the basic science underlying the most common practices of alternative agriculture: crop rotations, alternative crop nutrient sources and management strategies, integrated pest management, biological pest control, and alternative animal management systems. An evaluation of the economic potential of alternative agriculture follows.

"The report concludes with 11 case studies describing 14 farms managed with an efficient combination of alternative and conventional practices. Detailed descriptions of the practices and financial performance of five crop and livestock operations, seven fruit and vegetable farms, one western beef operation, and one rice farm are presented. The case studies provide insights into the operation of alternative farms in different regions producing different crops by the use of different methods. Each farm is tailored to the limitations and potential of its soil, water, and climate and the local economy.

"Farmers have a history of adopting new systems. While much work remains to be done, the committee believes that farmers, researchers and policymakers will perceive the benefits of the alternative systems described in this report and will work to make them tomorrow's conventions."

Understanding Traditional Agriculture: Bibliography for Development Workers, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-273, book, 114 pages, by Hans Carlier, 1987, Dfl. 19.50 or US $8.50 to Europe, Dfl. 22 or US $9.50 elsewhere, from ILEIA, P.O. Box 64, 3830 AB Leusden, The Netherlands.

"Why does science pay so little attention to the wisdom of peasants?"

Conventional agricultural development has proceeded from the notion that traditional agriculture consists of foolish practices carried out by ignorant people. People who have worked with small farmers know that this is not true and that small farmers are very efficient users of the variety of resources available to them. In order to help small farmers, it is necessary to better understand the real constraints and opportunities facing them. The best agricultural development programs involve small farmers directly in their research. There is also much that can be learned from the written reports and studies others have done around the world.

This bibliography is a valuable attempt to begin a worldwide compilation of information sources on traditional agriculture. Hundreds of articles and books, most of them in English, are listed. In some cases, addresses are provided while in others, only the title and publisher are given. Unfortunately, a great many of these entries are articles which will be hard to obtain outside of libraries that have a good collection of periodicals on development issues.

The Technology Applications Gap: Overcoming Constraints to Small-Farm Development, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-278, book, 144 pages, by Deborah Sands, 1986, from FAO or UNIPUB.

This is a review of the literature, focusing on key problems and mistakes that have repeatedly led to disappointing results in new technology programs. Case studies and recommendations form the core of this book. Perhaps the most interesting case involves the rapid diffusion of beekeeping in a part of Mexico:

"Since the early 1970's approximately 9000 farm families in Yucatan have developed small-scale beekeeping enterprises which complement subsistence maize production by providing a cash income essential for the household. They produce honey for export using the European bee, Apis mellifera, and the introduced technology of the moveable frame hive. These beekeepers supply between 5 and 10 percent of the honey traded in the international market."

"The new technology was actively adopted by small farmers with little government promotion or extension support for production. Although the technology was different from anything employed locally, it was easy for the small farmer to adopt. The equipment had been tested and demonstrated to be successful in the region by large-scale commercial producers in the 1960's. It is relatively simple and can be made locally by village craftsmen. It is divisible so that it can be purchased in small units which allows for incremental investment of scarce cash resources. It generated high yields and the market was relatively stable and accessible to the small farmer. This resulted in good net returns for the farm family to both labor and cash invested."

"The success of the new technology can be attributed to four basic factors which can serve as general criteria for evaluating proposed technologies developed for small farmers. First, it was profitable under the production conditions of the small farmers. Secondly, it engaged surplus labor and did not conflict with the production cycle or factor allocation patterns of food crop production, the primary agricultural activity of the farm families. Thirdly, the market was established and the marketing conditions were relatively favorable for the small producer. And finally, it met a primary goal within the household economy by providing cash income without threatening the household's ability to provision itself with staple foods."

An annotated bibliography makes up the second half of the book.

As You Sow: Three Studies in the Social Consequences of Agribusiness, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-131, book, 560 pages, by Walter Goldschmidt, 1978, Allanheld, Osmun and Company, out of print.

For the past several decades, American agriculture has been held up as a model for poor countries. This approach has been criticized for many different reasons. As You Sow documents the negative social consequences, within the U.S., of an agriculture that increasingly depends on large-scale farms. Goldschmidt notes, for example, that the number of skilled people in communities with small farms is much higher than in communities with a few large farms. Small farms allow the widespread development of entrepreneurial and management skills that are essential to the development of other rural enterprises. Large farms restrict this process, concentrating management and business learning opportunities in the hands of a few.

Environmentally Sound Small-Scale Agricultural Projects: Guidelines for Planning, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-170, book, 103 pages, VITA/CODEL, 1979, revised 1990 edition $12.95 (overseas orders add $3.00 for surface mail, $5.00 for airmail) from VITA; also available in French and Spanish; also available from ITDG and TOOL.

A sustainable agriculture must be ecologically sound. Practices that are not will degrade and consume the natural basis of agriculture. This book explains why this is true, discussing basic ecological principles and the implications of human alterations of naturally stable systems. Much of the book shows the importance of water supply, soil, and pest management in good planning.

"What are the effects of using groundwater for irrigation?" "What is pesticide persistence?" These are examples of questions posed and answered, with clear text and line drawings. Questions aimed at the effects of different alternatives are especially useful. For example, when considering chemical pesticides and/or Integrated Pest Management techniques: "Can a species-specific pesticide be used?...Does the project design recognize the possibility that the target species will develop resistance to the pesticide? ... Are similar pesticides being used locally for health purposes, such as malaria control? ... Are there plants with pesticidal properties which could be used?"

Also included is an "easy-to-use-in-the-field methodology for planning and benefits/costs analysis of small-scale projects." This chapter emphasizes the importance of intelligent questions, readiness to learn from local experience, and flexibility.

However, this book does not focus on the tropical and semi-arid conditions which are found in most developing countries; and it does not provide specific details on any techniques suggested (such as building terraces for erosion control, or monitoring local conditions).

One Straw Revolution, paperback book, 224 pages, by Masanobu Fukuoka, 1978, $17.95 from Rodale.

This thought-provoking book is considered a classic text for advocates of what has been called "natural farming" or "permaculture" (see review of Permaculture II in this section). The author was trained in microbiology, specializing in plant disease, in industrializing pre-World War II Japan. His studies stressed high inputs of energy, capital, and chemicals to control and, if necessary, combat natural forces. He began to question the wisdom of these practices, and returned to his village to try an alternative approach. Over the years, Fukuoka, through painstaking observation and experimentation, developed a method of farming which mimics the natural succession of plant communities and the self-regenerating aspects of ecosystems. He claims that farming units can produce food and fiber in an almost effortless fashion without chemicals or cultivation.

This low-energy system of agriculture contains the following four principles:

No cultivation—do not turn the soil over, and so avoid injuries that divert productive activity;

No chemical fertilizer or prepared compost—let the plants and animals that make the soil go to work on the soil;

No weeding by tillage or herbicide—use the weeds; control them by natural means or occasional cutting;

No dependence on chemicals—insects and disease, weeds and pests, have their own controls—let these operate, and assist them.

One Straw Revolution is a very readable book, with photos of the author practicing his techniques in the fields. While it is inspirational, some caution should be used in considering its relevance to tropical and developing countries. First, Fukuoka has successfully practiced his "natural farming" only in the temperate climate of Japan. Attempts to make the system work in North America are as yet inconclusive. We have heard of no attempts to promote Fukuoka's system in the tropics.

Second, the system requires a great deal of patience, perseverance, and knowledge, possibly only gained by years of experience. Most traditional farmers in the South do not have the margin of error for experimentation available to nonconformists in developed countries. The immediate problem for most farmers is one of survival, not sustained yields. However, these farmers often do have highly evolved systems of cultivation and extensive traditional knowledge about soils, plants, and local ecology. Quite often they do practice minimum tillage and marginal use of chemicals. Perhaps a dialogue between concerned scientists, development field workers, small farmers, and natural farming advocates could lead to further refinements and broader applications for farming systems such as this one.

Ideas such as those proposed in this book may be seen by many today as wild and unrealistic. Still, Fukuoka's methods may yet prove to be the last straw if the world's heavily subsidized and centralized food and energy systems were to crumble.

Permaculture II: Practical Design for Town and Country in Permanent Agriculture, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-201, book, 150 pages, by Bill Mollison, 1980, Australian $20.00 plus postage from Tagari Publications, P.O. Box 1, Tyalgum, NSW 2484, Australia.

Permaculture II is the second, more practical volume in a series of two fascinating publications that present an approach to permanent agriculture. These books are based on the author's experience in rural Tasmania and the semi-arid areas of Australia. He and his family are part of an intentional community practicing self-reliance in food, energy, and shelter. "Permaculture" is "primarily a consciously designed agricultural system ... a system that combines landscape design with perennial plants and animals to make a safe and sustainable resource for town and country. A truly appropriate technology giving high yields for low energy inputs, and using only human skill and intellect to achieve a stable resource of great complexity and stability."

The author argues for species-diversity in combined agricultural-forestry systems in place of the energy-intensive mechanized monocultures that are standard in developed countries (and increasingly in developing countries). His book is an impassioned appeal with numerous design sketches, references, and anecdotes to back up his points. "Without permanent agriculture there is no possibility of a stable social order. We can see the departure from productive permanent systems, where the land is held in common, to annual, commercial agricultures, where land is regarded as a commodity. This involves a departure from a low to a high-energy society, the use of land in an exploitive way, and a demand for external energy sources, mostly provided by the Third World."

Permaculture II builds upon the philosophy of Fukuoka and his book One Straw Revolution (see review in this section) "of working with, rather than against nature; of protracted and thoughtful observation rather than protracted and thoughtless labor; of looking at plants and animals in all their function, rather than treating any area as a single-product system."

This is essentially a design and planning workbook which provides practical details of how plant, animal, and human communities can be organized as a unit. Permaculture II claims to be a realistic and optimistic, yet not utopian book.

A strong emphasis is given to water resource management and homesite integration into the overall plan. Mollison's group employs a method of soil and water conservation known as the Keyline System, with which unproductive and sterile soils can be rehabilitated. Soils are reconditioned by the use of chisel plows and no-tillage implements where tractors or animal traction are available (since these may have been the cause of compacted conditions), or with deep-rooted plants. These efforts, combined with innovative rainwater catchments, contour irrigation dams, ditches, wells, and fishponds, help to provide adequate irrigation water for the next phase of development. Mixed tree crops and field crops are planted successively, as gardens are laid out and kept nourished by plant litter. Planted and built shelters are devised for humans and livestock, and are incorporated into the perennial-based plant community.

This is, of course, an oversimplified account of the Permaculture system, which becomes increasingly complex and organized over time. The author provides only brief overviews of how a Permaculture system might operate in semi-arid and humid areas of the tropics. Since the species selected are applicable to the southern hemisphere and Tasmania specifically, many adaptations would be required before this system could be attempted in other areas. For its insight and inspiration, however, this book deserves wide circulation. Recommended.

Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-270, book, 407 pages, by National Research Council, 1989, $27.95 to U.S., $33.00 overseas, from National Academy Press, 2101Constitution Avenue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418, USA.

"At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Incas cultivated almost as many species of plants as the farmers of all Asia or Europe. On mountainsides up to four km high along the spine of a whole continent and in climates varying from tropical to polar, they grew a wealth of roots, grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and nuts." "Without money, iron, wheels or work animals for plowing, the Indians terraced, irrigated and produced abundant food for fifteen million or more people ....Storehouses overflowed with grains and dried tubers." The "Spaniards who conquered Peru repressed the Indians, suppressed their traditions and destroyed much of the intricate agricultural system .... Crops that had held honored positions in Indian society for thousands of years were deliberately replaced by European species ... that the conquerors demanded be grown." "Forced into obscurity were at least a dozen native root crops, three grains, three legumes, and more than a dozen fruits .... This botanical colonialism closed off from the rest of the world a major center of crop diversity." Fortunately, these species have not actually been lost, and are still cultivated by small communities. These plants have great potential for use in many other places around the world, and the prospects for each species are explored. Color and

black-and-white photos and line drawings provide excellent illustrations. This book was written for use by "administrators, entrepreneurs, and researchers in developing countries as well as in North America, Europe and Australasia ... to provide a brief introduction to the plants selected ... it is intended as a tool for economic development rather than a textbook or survey of Andean botany or agriculture."

The Art of the Informal Agricultural Survey, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-284, booklet, 40 pages, by Robert E. Rhoades, 1982, $1.00 from International Potato Center, Apartado 5969, Lima, Peru.

This short booklet is an extremely valuable guide to doing effective information gathering among farmers. The same techniques can be applied in urban settings as well. The voice of experience highlights the pitfalls that can ruin the effort.

"The informal survey is in fact a form of appropriate technology: cheap, practical, and fast. If properly executed, such surveys can produce at minimum cost a rich description of life in a farming community; an understanding of how farmers, merchants, extension workers, and others perceive their conditions and make decisions. On top of this, a properly conducted informal survey can give an accurate comprehension of local farming ecology and practices. "And anyone can do it—agronomists, extension workers, biologists, and social scientists. All you need is a little time (a few days to two weeks), pencil, paper, common sense, and a down-to-earth approach to farm people and their circumstances."

"... (T)he informal survey places project implementors in contact with their clients for the first time and on the clients' home turf .... (It) is methodologically simple but usually physically tough. And dirty. It normally can't be accomplished by driving along a main road looking at fields, although a 'windshield survey' may be a way to begin. The successful survey may require sloshing through muddy fields, scrambling along rocky paths and dangerous slopes, or whiling away hours in fly-ridden tea shops casually talking with farmers. The surveyors must be country-oriented, grubbing out information in fields, market places, bars, or wherever farmers' daily routines carry them. Those unwilling to face a few village hardships have no business doing informal surveys."

"The successful informal survey also requires mental and methodological flexibility. It does not proceed like the formal questionnaire survey where pre-determined hypotheses are tested. Instead, important questions and the direction of study emerge as information is collected .... Secondary materials, especially government statistics, should be taken as suggestive of possible lines of inquiry and not as gospel truth " "... (S)eek out 'key informants,' those talkative individuals with great depth of experience and knowledge about farming. Don't fall into the bias of interviewing only men."

This is a very readable piece that we are tempted to continue to quote at length. Highly recommended.

How to Perform an Agricultural Experiment, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-188, book, 30 pages, by G. Pettygrove, 1971, revised 1981 edition $7.25 (overseas orders add $3.00 for surface mail, $5.00 for airmail) from VITA; also available in Spanish and French.

"Improved varieties, new fertilizer practices, irrigation, pesticides, new feed mixtures, and improved harvest procedures are just a few of the more important innovations which must be thoroughly tested at the local level before they are passed on to the farmer by extension methods .... The purpose of this paper is to provide local agriculturalists with an understanding of the basic considerations in the design, execution, and measurement procedure of an agricultural experiment."

The Farmer's Guide, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-171, book, 1053 pages, by the Jamaica Agriculture Society, 1962, out of print.

Written for use on the Caribbean island of Jamaica, the Guide contains more than 1000 pages of text on topics of interest to farmers in tropical regions, including soil maintenance, irrigation, animal husbandry, a wide variety of field crops, pest control, and much more. Some of the material is now dated. Recommended.

Agro-Forestry Systems for the Humid Tropics East of the Andes, M F 05- 128, booklet, 25 pages, by John P. Bishop, Estacion Experimental Napo/Centro Amazonico Limoncocha, Instituto National de Investigaciones Agropecurias, Apartado 2600, Quito, Ecuador, 1980, out of print.

This is a set of two papers by Dr. John P. Bishop, an agricultural researcher located in Ecuador. Bishop works with traditional farmers, who are called "colonists," "uncontrolled migrants," "shifting cultivators," and other less favorable things. Bishop is convinced that traditional farmers have an understanding of species, soils and ecology that can be put to use in modified "permanent agriculture" models (see review of Permaculture II).

The papers are entitled "Integrated Foodcrop, Swine, Chicken and Fuelwood Production," and "Integrated Timber and Cattle Production." The first covers small farmholdings of 1 to 10 hectares. The second describes a supplemental scheme requiring an additional 30-40 hectares. Included are charts of cropping system timelines and systems models. Since this information comes from monitoring real farms, it could be directly relevant to conditions in the delicate humid American tropics and of interest to people in other regions of the world.

Handbook of Tropical and Subtropical Horticulture, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-185, book, 186 pages, by E.

Mortensen and E. Bullard, 1964, USGPO Stock No. 044-001-000225' out of print in 1981; see reviews of Guide for Field Crops in the Tropics and Subtropics and the intensive gardening manuals.

"Based upon an extensive survey of available literature ... (this manual) is written in layman's terms so that it may be understood by the non-specialist who is called upon to work with farm families in solving their agricultural problems. It also serves as a reference and guide for teaching courses."

"Major tropical fruit, nut, and tree crops are discussed in the second chapter with emphasis on such important points as spacing, pruning, fertilizing, budding, and disease and insect control. A few temperate zone fruits are included to stress that they can be grown only at higher elevations in the tropics due to chilling requirements. Crops are listed alphabetically and scientific names are given for reference purposes."

"The Handbook continues with a description of all major vegetable crops. Information is presented on seed storage, vegetable varieties, fertilizer recommendations, plant spacing, temperature requirements, soil and cultivation. Major diseases with their controls are presented in a table for easy reference."

This handbook is heavily slanted toward row-cropping, the use of synthetic fertilizers and toxic chemicals, and a highly technical approach to agricultural development. The information it provides, however, on plant varieties, nutrient needs, and nutritional content is very helpful to anyone working in the field. To people seeking locally available organic resources and techniques, a great deal of this book must be disregarded. Recommended as a secondary reference resource.

Guide for Field Crops in the Tropics and Subtropics, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-184, book, 321 pages, edited by Samuel Litzenberger, reprinted by Peace Corps in 1976, out of print.

"In the tropical and subtropical areas of the world, food grains make up the bulk of the diet for most people. Food grains together with fiber and specialty crops are also principal cash producers. It is with these commodities that this Guide concerns itself .... The Guide is designed for use by foreign assistance personnel and cooperators .… The text (composed of 40 chapters) is written in layman's language ... The first four are general introductory chapters and treat rather extensively the important subjects of climate, soil, cropping, and farming systems as related to the tropics and subtropics. The other 36 chapters are divided as follows: 6 on cereal crops, 9 on food legumes, 6 on oil crops, 7 on root or tuber crops and bananas, 6 on major fiber crops and 2 on other cash crops. These chapters do not attempt to deal with the factors of providing inputs such as national supplies of fertilizer, insecticides and fungicides."

This manual is quite a balanced textbook for development workers with interests or skills in agriculture. Of special interest are the chapters entitled "The Tropical Environment for Crop Production" and "Farming Systems for the Tropics and Subtropics,' which provide useful information on traditional farming models and tropical ecology.

"There is a possibility that the functions of the slow restoration of soil productivity by native vegetation can be duplicated by man's management of soils without removing them from continued farming. The first step should be to extend the years of continued crop production by the adoption of technology for individual crops. Such technology is outlined in the 36 chapters on the different crops. An important feature is the addition to soil organic matter by the return of crop residues to the soil and by the use of manures and compost for producing crops. Adequate fertilization will certainly increase substantially the annual addition of crop roots to the total soil organic matter ... A second step, when feasible, may be to grow green manure crops to restore soil organic matter. These may follow a regular crop or replace a year of crop production. The green manure crops may be utilized for feeding livestock, but the green manure should be plowed under so that decaying roots and tops will add to fertility. Small farmers are usually not in a position to grow green manure crops. More appropriate would be for them to produce an economic crop as recent research has shown that, with the use of soil amendments, most soils can be maintained in food production returning only crop residues to the soil."

This book clearly favors field crops and makes little mention of perennials and agroforestry. We do feel that it can be a helpful supplemental handbook for agricultural students, rural development volunteers and extension agents.

Soils, Crops and Fertilizer Use, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 05-218, book, 103 pages, by Dave Leonard, 1969, free to Peace Corps workers and development organizations in developing countries from Peace Corps; also available from ERIC (order no. ED241778) and NTIS (accession no. PB85 239184).

Developed for Latin America-based volunteers, this book presents basic information on the physical and chemical characteristics of soils, plant nutrition, and soil fertility. The author is openly skeptical about the practicality of organic fertilizers. He emphasizes the use of chemical fertilizers and soil amendments, such as lime, as a means of achieving higher yields in agricultural development projects.

This book should be used along with a training program consisting of actual field analysis of soil structure and texture, chemical soil tests, and po