Water Supply and Sanitation
Books reviewed in this section
After sufficient food, a good clean water supply and adequate sanitation system are considered to be the most important factors in ensuring good health in a community. Improved water supply and sanitation systems were major elements of the public health measures that drastically cut death rates and improved health levels in the industrialized countries. Though it is not generally appreciated, these measures have been considerably more important than curative medicine in contributing to good health, long life expectancy and low infant mortality. Infant diarrhea, the largest killer in developing countries, is closely related to poor water quality.
The first books in this section provide a context for discussion of water supplies— the social and ecological effects of water systems (including large dams and irrigation projects in addition to community water supplies), and the nature of water supply needs, constraints, and possibilities for communities in the South.
Due to their great potential benefits, village water supply systems have been favorite development projects of government and international agencies for several decades. They make a revealing topic of study for appropriate technology advocates, as they represent one task for which small-scale technology has been widely promoted. A basic conclusion: a water supply or sanitation project that is imposed on a community, without community involvement in determining the need for and nature of the system, or without an effort to train some community members to do maintenance and repair, is very likely to fail.
Participation and Education in Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes: A Literature Review offers valuable insights into the requirements for successful programs that fully involve the community. With 20-50% of handpumps in rural areas of the South broken down at any one time, the appropriate technology solutions seem to depend on local people and institutional arrangements that can ensure good maintenance and rapid repair. This also implies the use of equipment that can be repaired at the local level.
More than 20 of the entries in this section are manuals on the various aspects of the planning and installation of small water supply systems, including wells, pipelines, storage tanks, and drainage. Another thirteen publications on pumps and water lifters range from broad inventories of water lifting devices to construction plans for particular pumps. Laboratory Testing of Handpumps for Developing Countries presents the results of extensive testing of 18 widely-used handpumps. Four additional entries describe the construction and use of ferrocement and bamboo-reinforced tanks (sometimes used in roof rainwater catchment). These are followed by seven publications on water filtration and treatment. In sand filtration, water is passed slowly through a tank filled with sand. The sand traps large particles, and it holds the bacteria that digest fecal matter naturally so that it will be harmless to humans. Solar distillation is another option for water treatment; this is covered by five entries.
The bibliography Low Cost Technology Options for Sanitation: A State of the Art Review offers an excellent summary of the sanitation technologies relevant to urban and rural settings in developing countries and is a guide to the technical literature (mostly hard-to-get research reports). Small Excreta Disposal is a valuable small reference manual on the range of waste disposal alternatives that can be used in small communities. The next books describe dry composting toilets and ventilated pit latrines as alternatives to expensive water-borne sewage systems. Many variations have been tried in many different countries; some have been built by the tens of thousands. Most of these books are primarily relevant to conditions in the South, while Compost Toilets: A Guide for Owner-Builders and several others were written for North American audiences. Natural treatment of water-borne sewage in a marsh pond is a relatively low-technology approach that seems to have potential for some communities in North America. Natural Sewage Recycling Systems describes work done on this technique in the United States. This type of system is now being used by the city of San Diego in southern California. A similar system using fish ponds in cities of China and India is described in Aquaculture: A Component of Low Cost Sanitation Technology.
With several drought years and greater demands on existing water supplies in the western United States, there has been much recent interest in the reuse of household wash water in gardens and yards. Residential Water Re-Use is an excellent compendium of technology ideas and the basic technical considerations of such greywater systems. The last entry in this section, Management of Solid Wastes in Developing Countries, discusses refuse collection and transport, sanitary landfills, and composting of urban wastes.
In This Section
A. Water Supply: General Considerations
B. Participation: A Key to Successful Systems
C. References
D. Small Water Supply Systems
E. Pumps and Water Lifters
G. Filtration and Treatment
H. Sanitation
I. Water Refuse and Solid Waste Management
The Social and Ecological Effects of Water Development in Developing Countries, book, 127 pages, edited by Carl Widstrand, 1978, out of print, microform edition available from O.P. Books Department, Pergamon Press, Inc., Maxwell House, Fairview Park, Elmsford, New York 10523, USA.
"During recent years it has been shown quite clearly that the expected social benefits from drinking water supplies have not been realized and that irrigation projects have created more problems than they solve. None has fulfilled the expectations of planners and government and most projects are used only to 50% of their capacity. This means that 100 million ha. of land with available irrigation are not used and that millions of rural people who are provided with pumps, pipes and installations cannot get any water out of them. This book is concerned with why this has happened and what can be done about it." These articles are by 10 people experienced in water systems work in the South.
Most irrigation schemes "appear to create subsidized income elites; contribute to food production only at high cost; facilitate preconditions for inappropriate mechanization and thus a disappointing employment creation record; and they lead to various aspects of environmental degradation. Public health considerations are typically ignored."
Much of the poor performance of water development schemes is attributed by two of the authors to structural problems in the way research and planning are conducted. David Henry notes that a poor learning situation for planners has prevented them from learning from the mistakes of the past two decades. Robert Chambers points to the problem of research priorities that are determined more by the need for recognition among professional colleagues than by the real needs of rural people: "... the primary criterion for good research should be that it is likely to mitigate poverty and hardship among rural people, especially the poorer rural people, and to enhance the quality of their lives in ways which they will welcome; that in short, priorities should be ... grounded in the reality of the rural situation. Starting with rural people, their world view, their problems and their opportunities, will give a different perspective. To be able to capture that perspective requires a revolution in professional values and in working styles; it requires humility and a readiness to innovate which may not come easily in many research establishments."
Some of the lessons for planners and donors: "more funds and more resources into public health training and education (with local teachers), more funds into training programs for operators and maintenance personnel—not producing full-scale engineers, but, instead, small-scale mechanics with some basic skills directly applicable to the water system—and more thought about the involvement of locals in the planning of water schemes."
Highly recommended.
Environmentally Sound Small-Scale Water Projects: Guidelines for Planning, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 10-320, book, 142 pages, by Gus Tillman, 1981, $12.95 from VITA; also available in Spanish; also available from TOOL.
"This booklet has been written for community development workers in developing countries who are not technicians in the area of water resources. It is meant to serve as a general guide when planning environmentally sound small-.scale water projects—that is, projects which protect and conserve natural resources in a manner which allows sustainable development to take place." Material covered includes a general introduction to ecological principles, the water cycle in the environment, disease control and sanitation, water resources development, and project planning. It is intended that more specific manuals will be consulted for technical details when needed. Recommended as an introduction.
Drawers of Water, book, 306 pages, by Gilbert White, David Bradley, and Anne White, 1972, $25.00 from University of Chicago Press, 5801 Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637-1496, USA.
Combining engineering, economics, health and sociology, Drawers of Water is "a broad view of domestic water supply in the developing tropics." Using examples and studies from East Africa, the authors discuss: traditional water supplies and use in urban and rural communities; the range of attempted and possible improvements; the health costs and benefits of improved water systems; individual and social "costs"; and the successes and problems of standard economic and technical planning methods.
Drawers of Water is intended for "decision-makers" in developing countries— much of the book contains technical discussions of data from sociological and economic studies. The book's strength, however, is that it recognizes that "accepted" planning methods must be altered to account for local physical and social conditions.
Guidelines on Health Aspects of Plumbing, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 10-322, book, 168 pages, by Floyd Taylor and William Wood, 1982, $16.50 from IRC; also available in Spanish.
Water and sewage systems installed by public authorities must interact with privately constructed systems at individual buildings. Bad design or faulty installation of the private systems can result in pollution (e.g., through back-siphoning), damage or overload to the public systems, with accompanying health risks to the rest of the community and higher costs to the system. This book attempts to lay out a basic plumbing code of practice to minimize these risks, to be enforced by local authorities.
The problem is a real one, primarily occurring in urban systems. The difficulty of coming up with a generalized code of practice and a set of controls is that it necessarily requires certain assumptions about risk and cost tradeoffs that certainly vary from one place to another. Who is to say that the ad hoc water systems that dot slum communities, certainly in violation of any code of practice, are creating more risks than benefits? In particular, experience has shown that
building codes in developing countries tend to set standards that are not affordable for the poor majority, and that ignore the piecemeal, self-help, make-do-with-the-materials-at-hand approaches these people are forced to use. This book is an interesting attempt to deal with a thorny problem.
Water for the Thousand Millions, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 10-321, book, 58 pages, edited by Arnold Pacey, written by the Water Panel of ITDG, 1977, out of print in 1985.
This short volume differs from the other general water supply books in that it is explicitly about "appropriate water supplies", including the consideration of economic, social, environmental and health factors in determining. "appropriateness." The authors have concentrated on how these factors are combined in a variety of low-cost water systems that could be used by the thousand million people currently without clean drinking water.
"Water supplies are not an all-or-nothing phenomenon. Almost every situation lends itself to some improvement, even if funds and skills are severely limited." The key is matching people's needs and cultural patterns with the given water supply potential and much broader technical choice than is usually offered by governments or development agencies.
B. Participation: A Key to Successful Systems
Participation and Education in Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes: A Literature Review, Technical Paper No. 12, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 11-323, book, 204 pages, by Christine Van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1981, $34.00 from IRC; also in Spanish.
An extraordinary review of conclusions from a wide literature on the participation of communities in water supply and sanitation programs, this should be required reading for people working in these fields. For more information on specific concepts, the reader can refer to the original studies. This volume offers planners and community organizers the opportunity to avoid many of the common mistakes of the past and create programs with a maximum of community participation. It is also a good general guide for involving the community in any kind of appropriate technology activity, stressing their own perceptions of problems and solutions. An annotated bibliography, published as No. 13 in the Technical Papers Series, contains detailed abstracts of the 145 most relevant works on which the literature review is based.
Community participation in decision-making and implementation brings a number of rewards. It is a more democratic approach than imposition of projects from outside. It provides good opportunities for the growth of skills and competence at the grass-roots level—increasingly recognized as the most central goal of development. And it is more likely to be successful in solving problems.
Some of the authors have noted that hand pumps are broken down 20 to 70 percent of the time and that in some countries, village water systems are breaking down faster than they are being built. "A community is more likely to cooperate in the implementation, operation and maintenance of new systems if it has had a say in the preparation of plans."
In some countries, water supply programs have been divided into three categories. In communities where water supply and sanitation problems are felt by the entire population, the government agency offers assistance with forming a local committee and planning a work program. If problems are felt only by the village leadership, these people are supported with media and locally-planned primary school education programs to generate broader motivation to solve the problems. If problems are felt only by the water supply specialist, "various surveys are carried out with the involvement of the villagers, a motivation and education campaign is set up, and assistance is provided in solving other, more deeply felt village problems."
Many observers have "stressed the importance of presenting the community with the various technological solutions which are feasible, ranging from simple source protection and pit latrines to multiple house connections ... Community choice should include the possibility of rejection of any immediate source improvement ... Although this may seem a negative outcome ... each community has its own criteria for calculating sets of trade-offs, so that their perceptions of the usefulness and effects of improvements may differ considerably from those of the agency. Besides, self-made choices will ensure a greater commitment than solutions presented from outside."
Recently, some authors have emphasized the need for participatory research, "because it is a process which is part of the total educational experience, serving to identify community needs and to effect increased awareness and commitment." Two of the more innovative information-gathering and educational approaches briefly discussed are the "environmental sanitation walk" with a group of villagers, and the "community self-survey."
Highly recommended.
Hand Pump Maintenance in the Context of Community Well Projects, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 11 -322, booklet, 43 pages, by Arnold Pacey, 1977, revised 1980, £4.50 from ITDG.
This booklet is part of an Oxfam series on socially appropriate technology. The author looks at community well projects in developing countries and examines why over 60% of these break down and/or are not used. The reason for this is not due to faulty design of the pumps themselves, but because "... the community or village has not been adequately involved in the project in the first place, and has not accepted the social responsibility for the task of maintaining the pump."
"An effective pump system is not simply a technological object but a conglomerate of technology, institutions and people." With this in mind, three approaches are possible: 1) total village self-reliance, where a pump is manufactured using only those materials and skills available locally, 2) partial self-reliance, where a pump may be made outside the village, but the responsibility for maintenance lies within the village, and 3) elimination of village responsibility, usually by use of a manufactured imported pump which requires no maintenance (the most expensive option).
The conclusion is that the partial self-reliance path is most applicable in a variety of situations. Locally-made pumps will also work for low-lift applications. This booklet is most valuable as a reminder that local people and their institutions are at least as important as the hardware in the introduction of any community-level technology.
Recommended.
C. References
Using Water Resources, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 12-327, book, 143 pages, VITA, 1970 (reprinted 1977), $8.25 in U.S., $8.75 international surface mail, $11.75 international air mail, from VITA.
Due to the international demand for information on water supplies, VITA has reprinted this from its Village Technology Handbook (see review). Subjects are:
a) Developing water resources: basic well-drilling and digging information, including how to make various hand drilling tools;
b) Water lifting and transport: measuring water flows, bamboo piping systems, chain pump and inertia pump for irrigation, hydraulic ram pump;.c) Water storage and water power: springs, cisterns (tanks), dams, power transmission;
d) Water purification: boiler for drinking water, chlorination methods, sand filter.
D. Small Water Supply Systems
Rainwater Harvesting: The Collection of Rainfall and Runoff in Rural Areas, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 12-328, book, 220 pages, by Arnold Pacey with Adrian Cullis, 1986, £9.95 from ITDG.
This is an exploration of rainwater catchment tanks for drinking water and traditional methods of runoff farming in which rainwater is channeled to planted areas. In poor countries, rainwater catchment tanks are usually built smaller than optimum technical size because of cost considerations. In addition, it is quite common for users to rapidly consume collected water, leaving a subsequent dry period when no water is available. Runoff farming has been successful in the Negev desert in Israel (in winter), in the southwestern United States, and in other countries (notably India, which may offer the most relevant experience for other tropical areas). One key to identifying successful conditions for runoff farming is the balance between rainfall and evaporation during the growing season, and the distribution of storms. Areas with occasional heavy rainfall but hot growing seasons may be less suited for runoff farming than areas with less heavy but more consistent rainfall and lower temperatures.
Manual for Rural Water Supply, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-333, book, 175 pages plus foldout drawings, Helvetas, 1980,1985 fifth edition Swiss Francs 34.00 from SKAT; also available in Spanish and French; also available from VITA and TOOL.
A very thorough book on small community water supply systems based on 15 years experience of the Swiss Association for Technical Assistance and the Community Development Dept. in Cameroon. The basic elements of a distribution system are presented—wells, springs, stream diversions, storage tanks, distribution pipelines and stand pipes. There is a brief maintenance checklist.
This book is unusually broad in scope, beginning with the yearly water cycle (rain to groundwater) and then discussing standards for water quality that are realistic and affordable in rural Cameroon. Also unusual: coverage of the corrosive effects of water flowing through a variety of piping materials, and what can be done about this. Emphasizes the planning of distribution systems for expansion with expected population growth.
Widely relevant.
Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities, WHO Monograph #42, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-346, book, 327 pages, by E. Wagner and J. Lanoix, 1959, out of print in 1985.
This important reference work on water supply deals with both supply systems and sanitation considerations. It focuses on the development of a water supply program, including installation, operation, maintenance, and management.of water supply programs. Besides thorough coverage of rural sanitation, a significant part of the book is devoted to guidelines for effective management of water supply systems after their installation, and efforts to create and sustain community awareness and participation. Most importantly, an entire small community's water supply can be thoroughly planned with the use of this book—taking into consideration all major aspects such as geological formations, topography, needs analyses, flow, distribution, storage systems, and the vital human component—what happens when people accustomed to crossing ravines and climbing down steep slopes have potable water flowing from a tap.
Small Water Supplies, Ross Bulletin No. 10, booklet, 54 pages, by R. Feachem and A.M. Cairncross,1986 £3.50 from Ross Institute, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keepel (Gower) Street, London WC1E 7HT, England; or ITDG.
This handbook is for "someone who wishes to build only a few water supplies (systems) using simple equipment easily available to him; typically a rural health worker." It is not intended for those working with large-scale water supply systems. All aspects of designing a water supply system are presented for the novice. The subjects include preliminary design, water sources (wells and boreholes), raising water (how to choose pumps of all types), water treatment, storage (dams and tanks), pipes, and distribution. There is an extra chapter on purification on an individual scale.
An appendix describes bacterial analysis of water using simple equipment and MacConkey broth (available from Oxoid Ltd., Wade Road, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England; or Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Michigan 48201, USA.)
This book covers material similar to that in Water Supply for Rural Areas by WHO (see review). Small Water Supplies is significantly less expensive, and while less detailed it does include a wide range of material on water purification and general aspects of small water systems. For these reasons, we highly recommend it.
Small Community Water Supplies, Technical Paper No. 18, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13344, book, 415 pages, 1983, $37.00 from IRC; also in French and Spanish; also from TOOL.
Covers technology of small community water supply systems including planning and management, water quantity and quality, water sources, rainwater harvesting, springwater tapping, groundwater withdrawal, surface water intake, artificial recharge, pumping, water treatment, aeration, coagulation and flocculation, sedimentation, slow sand filtration, rapid filtration, disinfection, water transmission, and water distribution.
Rural Water Supply in Developing Countries, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-337, book, 144 pages, 1981, IDRC, publication IDRC-167e, out of print.
This collection of papers presented at a regional workshop on water supply held in Malawi provides a profile of low-cost water supply options for rural Africa. It includes a wide selection of designs and technologies while emphasizing local participation, planning, and training to upgrade water supply in the difficult circumstances found in this region. Recommended.
Rural Water Supply in Nepal: Technical Training Manuals 1-5, 5 short booklets, 1978, by the Local Development Department of Nepal, UNICEF-Nepal, out of print.
These five manuals are very simple training materials for those working in rural water supply development in Nepal. They range from 13 to 30 pages in length and give brief introductions in the following areas:
1) Hydrology and Water Cycle (Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-340)—the climatology and general water availability in Nepal.
2) Stone Masonry (Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-342)—how to build tanks and basins for water storage, using stones and cement.
3) Concrete (Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-338)—mixing and using concrete; also for water storage.
4) Pipes and Fittings (Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-341)—an introduction to pipes and fittings commonly used in Nepal; both galvanized iron and HDP (high-density polyethylene). This manual is useful in showing welding techniques for joining pipes. The advantages and disadvantages of each material are presented: iron is heavier but stronger and easily available; HDP is an easily damaged synthetic that is cheaper, easily connected, and doesn't require special joints.
5) Construction Design Course (Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-339)—source protection, water treatment, storage tanks, pressure-reducing unit pipelines, and public water tanks.
These manuals are useful examples of how simple but necessary skills for a set of local conditions can be communicated.
Rural Water Supply in China, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-336, book, 92 pages, 1981, IDRC, publication IDRC-TS25e, out of print.
Water supply solutions for the range of conditions found in the People's Republic of China are presented in a thorough and informative manner. The pragmatic text and clear drawings should allow any of the techniques to be replicated in a rural situation at reasonable cost. Includes information on well location, drilling, casing, and repair. Also covers water lifting, filtering, treatment, storage, distribution, etc. Very useful. Highly recommended.
Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Water Supply in Developing Countries: A Literature Survey, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-335, order no. WASH C-252, paper, 103 pages, by Kent Keller, free to developing countries from the U.S. Agency for International Development, Water and Sanitation for Health Project, 1611 North Kent Street, Room 1002, Arlington, Virginia 22209, USA.
Rainwater harvesting systems offer many advantages for water collection. Systems can often be adapted to fit locally available skills, materials, patterns of rainfall, and water consumption. Costs of catchment systems are often low relative to other alternatives, and catchment systems can be installed incrementally, reducing high initial costs. Discussion focusing on systems for family and small-scale community water supply are presented in three main sections: "Broad
Concerns and Basic Constraints in Rainwater Catchment," "Catchment Technologies" and "Storage Technologies of 'Tanks'." Each section finishes with a list of published references and ordering information (a number of the referenced materials are included in this microfiche library). Finally, brief technical notes are presented for planning and construction of a few promising rooftop catchment designs. Lucid and comprehensive.
Village Water Systems, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-345, book, 100 pages, by Carl Johnson, UNICEF, Nepal, out of print in 1985.
This is written as a reference for designing water distribution systems, with an emphasis on conditions found in the mountain regions of Nepal.
"Design criteria are presented where standard designs cannot be practically used, while the standard designs that are included are for guide purposes only ...."
With charts and sample calculations, the author covers initial surveys, intake works, pipeline sizing, break pressure and reservoir tanks, and public taps. Water quality and/or treatment, windmills and hydraulic rams are mentioned briefly, and the reader is referred to other publications in the bibliography (the book assumes you have access to the UNICEF or WHO libraries in Nepal). An appendix presents a sample design, with calculations, for a rural water supply system and the cable suspension of a flexible pipe (a frequent need in mountainous areas).
A Handbook of Gravity-Flow Water Systems for Small Communities, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-332, book, 242 pages, by Thomas D. Jordan, Jr., UNICEF/Nepal, 1984, £6.95 from ITDG; also available from TOOL.
This book replaces Village Water Systems. Like its predecessor, it is written as a reference for designing water distribution systems, with an emphasis on the conditions found in the mountain regions of Nepal. Topics covered include village evaluation and feasibility studies, topographic surveying, design period, population and water demands, hydraulic theory, air-blocks and washouts, pipeline design, system design and estimates, piping construction, intake works, sedimentation tanks, break-pressure tanks, reservoir tanks, public tap stands, valve boxes, water quality, hydraulic rams, concrete, cement, and masonry.
Recommended.
Design Problems for a Simple Rural Supply System, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-328, 37 pages, and Gravity Flow Water Systems, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-330, 48 pages, by A. Scott Faiia, out of print in 1985.
The author wrote these manuals in response to the great number of gravity-fed water systems which he found not working. They do not attempt to be comprehensive in coverage and are still in draft form. Nonetheless, they are useful in that they clarify some basic proven design approaches. "The theory of water system design is extensively covered in other publications. The emphasis here is placed on practical methods that have been tested in the field and have given acceptable results .... The notes are based on several years' experience in Indonesia and have been used for training of field staff responsible for site selection, design, and implementation." Design Problems is a workbook with problems based upon the material presented in Gravity Flow Water Systems.
Public Standpost Water Supplies, Technical Paper #13, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-349, book, 104 pages, IRC, November 1979; and Public Standpost Water Supplies: A Design Manual, Technical Paper #14, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-350, book, 91 pages, IRC, December 1979; both out of print.
Most village and town water supply systems in developing countries include public standposts to allow many different users to draw water from each tap. The.proper design of such standposts is therefore quite important to the overall success of the water system. These two volumes review the general considerations and design details that should be incorporated into well-planned public taps.
Manual for Water Systems and Pipe Work, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-334, 37 pages, by Andreas Bachmann and Nir Man Joshi, 1977, available in photocopy form only from SDC or SKAT.
Subtitled "A Brief Introductory Course for the Establishment of Rural Water Supplies in Nepal," this engineering manual is for those involved in design, construction and plumbing of water supplies in rural areas. The concepts are presented with dimensional drawings and simple English explanations.
The first section provides introductory design information for natural gravity and hydraulic ram distribution systems and water conduits (pipes and valves). The rest of the manual covers the use of the three types of pipe available in Nepal: galvanized iron, HDP (high-density polyethylene) and PVC (polyvinylchloride). Included is information on laying pipe and making many different kinds of joints.
Excellent as a field training manual; some of the information is contained in Rural Water Supply in Nepal: Technical Draining, Manual #4 (see review).
Highly recommended.
Residential and Non-Residential Drinking Water Installations and Drainage Requirements in Buildings in Nepal, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-329, book, 180 pages, revised 1988, by A. Bachmann, from SKAT; photocopies free to serious groups from SDC.
This is an engineering handbook for designing water installations in Nepalese buildings (assuming a low-pressure supply of piped water already exists). The three sections of general interest are:
1) Design criteria and tables for making design calculations for low-pressure systems,
2) Examples of water system designs, including several solar water heating, natural gas and biogas installations, and
3) Drainage requirements for drains and sewers.
There are many detailed system design drawings and design tables included. This reference is meant for buildings in a city like Kathmandu, where water distribution systems already exist or will exist in the near future.
The special value of this manual is that it represents an adaptation of standard plumbing design and practice to some of the materials, tools, and building construction practices found locally in Nepal.
Hand Dug Wells and Their Construction, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-331, book, 234 pages, by S. Watt and W. Wood, 1977, £7.95 from ITDG; also available from VITA and TOOL.
"This manual describes hand dug shaft wells and their construction by relatively unskilled villagers. Modern concepts, methods and designs are incorporated, but in such a way that those who will carry out the actual work do not require a high degree of education, training or supervision. Much of the equipment can be made locally and costs (especially the cost of imported materials) can be kept to a minimum. The simple directions are based upon proven methods and satisfactory results gathered from various parts of the world. Wells constructed by the methods indicated need be in no way inferior to those produced by mechanical. equipment at many times the expense."
"The first part of the book deals with the general principles of ground water storage, hygienic sources, and some notes on the preparatory work. Part II deals with the actual construction, and Part III with alternative methods and techniques. Part IV details the standard equipment and materials used, and Part V provides additional information and sources." There are many drawings and photographs.
The best book on low-cost wells. Highly recommended.
Hand Drilled Wells: A Manual on Siting, Design, Construction and Maintenance, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-352, book, 132 pages, by Bob Blankwaardt, 1984, Rwegarulila Water Resources Institute, Tanzania, Dfl. 19.50 from TOOL.
Hand-drilled wells are interesting because they are low-cost, both in terms of the equipment required and the cost of sinking individual wells. The equipment has the additional virtue of being very portable, allowing it to be carried by pack animals into locations inaccessible to truck-mounted rigs. Hand-drilled wells are, however, more limited by depth and rocky soils than wells sunk by motorized rigs. In practice, hand-drilled wells tend to be clustered in areas with known water table and soil characteristics, and there is often a local tradition of sinking these wells.
This volume goes beyond the limitations of local well-drilling wisdom by providing a basic understanding of groundwater and site investigation. This will allow the reader to strike out into new territory and identify likely sites for hand-drilled wells. Detailed information is provided on drill bit design, drilling techniques, installation of the filter pipe and the pump itself, and maintenance of the pumps. All of these topics are covered with numerous photos and illustrations.
Well Construction Using Curved Hollow Block, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-351, book, 115 pages, by C. Gampher and S. Gates, 1989, $3.00 from Haribon Foundation, Suite 306 and 304, Sunrise Condominium, 226 Ortigas Avenue, 1500 San Juan, Manila, Philippines.
A construction manual for an unusual hand-dug well construction technique, in which curved hollow concrete blocks are used to line the side of the well. "The technique is similar to the technique of using street culverts to form a cylinder. The advantage of curved hollow block over culverts in remote sites is that two to three people can build a well from start to finish," without the heavy equipment needed to transport and position culverts. Excellent illustrations.
Self-Help Wells, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper #30, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-343, 78 pages, by R.G. Koegel, 1978, reprinted 1985, $8.00 from FAO or $12 from UNIPUB.
This is a good survey of self-help well-drilling and digging techniques. The emphasis is on local materials and labor, not on imported technologies. Techniques are described for both small (15 cm) and large-diameter wells. Drilling methods discussed include boring, percussion and rotary drilling for small-diameter wells. Excavation techniques for larger diameter wells are presented.
The amount of detail in descriptions varies, but there are many good drawings. Even though this is not a construction manual, these drawings are very useful in explaining the ideas. The materials range from simple wooden tools to metal drill bits, making these techniques adaptable to a wide variety of local.conditions. Labor-intensive techniques are emphasized. Also included are sections on health aspects of drilling, how to find water that is likely to be uncontaminated, safety precautions while drilling, and non-vertical wells (e.g. Qanats—horizontal tunnels that intercept a sloping water table).
Wells Construction: Hand-Dug and Hand-Drilled, Peace Corps Appropriate Technology for Development Series, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-348, book, 282 pages, by Richard E. Brush, 1980, available to Peace Corps volunteers and development workers from Peace Corps; also available from ERIC (order no. ED241770) and from NTIS (accession no. PB87-226064).
This is a well-written manual covering planning, design, and construction of small wells. Both hand-dug and low-cost drilling methods are discussed in a manner understandable by people new to the field. Appendices include an introduction to cement and concrete, techniques for using vegetation to locate water, uses of dynamite for well construction, a survey of common hand pumps, and instructions for chemical treatment of well water.
Water Wells Manual, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 13-347, book, 156 pages, by U. Gibson and R. Singer, 1971, Premier Press, Dfl. 32.75 from TOOL.
This is a "simplified, small wells how-to" manual. A good knowledge of English is necessary. It is intended as a "basic introductory textbook" to provide instruction and guidance to field personnel engaged in the construction, maintenance, and operation of small-diameter, relatively shallow wells used primarily for individual and small-community water supplies. ("Small" used here means up to 4 feet in diameter.) Topics include: background information on water cycles, geologic formations, water quality, ground water exploration, well design, well construction and maintenance, sanitation and wells, and a review of various types of pumping equipment and energy sources including a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each. This book would be useful for a community development worker who reads English well but has no formal training in water supply and/or well design. It is, however, oriented toward more technically minded people, even though it is described as "simplified."
E. Pumps and Water Lifters
Hand Pumps for Use in Drinking Water Supplies in Developing Countries, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-355, 230 pages, by F. Eugene McJunkin, 1977, revised 1983, International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply and Sanitation, out of print.
This is the basic reference book on handpumps, describing various types of pumps and principles of pump operation. It is "intended to serve public health officials, engineers and field staff who are planning and implementing water supply programs with hand pumps." Fewer pump types are described than in Pumps and Water Lifters (see review). The section on pump principles is detailed and technical, and includes design principles for each part of a pump assembly (plunger, stand, suction pipe, seals, valves, cylinders). It is a necessary reference for someone interested in detailed engineering design of simple pumps; many examples are given. There are two sections describing recent research in handpumps using wood, bamboo, plastic and steel, and local manufacturing methods for steel parts (such as casting, machining and welding).
A very complete, detailed handbook. Highly recommended.
Handpumps Testing and Development: Progress Report on Field and Laboratory Testing, World Bank Technical Paper No. 29, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-365, book, 399 pages, by Saul Arlosoroff et. al., 1984, $23.95 from World Bank Publications, Box 7247-8619, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19170-8619, USA.
The UNDP/World Bank project for handpump testing has laboratory and field tested a large number of handpumps. A major purpose of the project has been to identify and help develop pumps that are "suitable for village-level operation and maintenance (VLOM)."
This report summarizes the field testing results on 2860 pumps of 76 pump types in 17 countries.
Also included is a 15-page description of the pvc Rower pump, a very low-cost pump used especially for small plot irrigation in Bangladesh, that has proved very popular.
"In order to achieve widespread, sustained coverage of the rural and urban fringe population, pump designs must be based on the VLOM principle. Only then will it be feasible to transform the maintenance system practiced in developing countries from a reliance on expensive motorized mobile teams of skilled mechanics paid with government funds to one where the village or a group of villages carries out and pays for pump maintenance and repair. Significant improvements in pump design have been made in this direction over the last few years, but no VLOM pump has reached the stage where it has become a production model with proven successful performance in field trials of adequate duration.
"Each country using handpumps will at some time have to decide which pump types to use. This choice will rarely be a single pump type. Nonetheless, standardization on a small set of pump types must be achieved for the sake of facilitating the distribution of spare parts, exercising stringent quality control of manufacturing, and training installers and village repairers. The ease with which pumps can be locally manufactured (including joint ventures) will be an important consideration in this process.
"The country-wide pump choice will depend on a variety of factors determined by local conditions, such as the range of water table depths, availability of alternative water sources, in-country manufacturing capability, self-help potential in villages, and user acceptability of pump types. To arrive at a selection, the performance of different handpumps must be evaluated in relation to local requirements. Future Project reports will present laboratory and field test results in a manner which will help the concerned organizations to make this choice."
See also the two books that follow, from the same series. Highly recommended.
Laboratory Testing of Handpumps for Developing Countries, World Bank Technical Paper No. 19, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-366, book, 267 pages, by the Rural Water Supply Handpumps Project, World Bank Publications, out of print.
The results of extensive laboratory testing of 18 handpumps from around the world are presented. The tests included an endurance test of 4000 hours of operation, and performance tests (of volume lifted, work input, leakage, and efficiency). Also included are user comments and an engineering assessment of the design and materials used.
This will be valuable reading to anyone designing pumps, as it identifies the failure points and problem areas in each design, as well as the successful features. Recommendations for improvements are also included. Many of these pumps are being made in the South.
Handpumps Testing and Development: Proceedings of a Workshop in China, World Bank Technical Paper No. 48, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-364, book, 240 pages, edited by Gerhard Tschannerl and Kedar Bryan, November 1985, $12.95 from World Bank Publications, Box 7247-8619, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19170-8619, USA.
The Chinese contributions to these workshop proceedings indicate that they have been producing a surprising number of innovative and unique human and animal-powered pumps. Many of these pumps have been made in large numbers. In Hebei province alone, it is stated that there were "2,700,000 human and animal operated pumps, of which most were tube-chain water wheels" (also called "chain pumps"). Also unusual are a pedal-operated centrifugal pump and two designs of diaphragm pump (10,000 units sold in one year). These and other more conventional pumps are to be tested as part of the UNDP/World Bank project for laboratory testing of hand pumps.
The remainder of this book describes activities of international agencies and work in other countries; most of this material can be found in other sources.
Pumps and Water Lifters for Rural Development, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-363, book, 317 pages, by Alan Wood, revised 1977, $10 plus postage and handling in the U.S., outside the U.S. write to Publications, Engineering Research Center, Foothills Campus, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA.
A survey of water-lifting mechanisms in use around the world, from simple buckets to hydraulic rams and centrifugal pumps. The emphasis is on those that are built locally in developing areas, using local materials.
For each type of device, drawings, operating principles, and most appropriate conditions are given. Also included: discussions of historical uses of water pumps, prime movers (the energy source that powers a pump, from animal power and falling water to electric motors), criteria for choosing pumps for particular applications, general pumping principles with sample calculations, and how to read performance curves.
No detailed construction drawings are given. There are 123 clear illustrations, making this an excellent idea book for those who want to know what types of pumps are in use all over the world. It could serve as a starting point for someone to design and build his or her own pump for a particular application.
The Rower Pump, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-368, reports and brochures, 1984 and later, Mirpur Agricultural Workshop and Training School (MAWTS), Dhaka, Bangladesh, out of print.
Thousands of low-cost direct action handpumps made of pvc pipe are being used in Bangladesh for low-lift irrigation of small plots. The Rower pump can be easily made in developing countries, and the farmer can do his/her own simple repairs. The pump pays for itself in one crop.
The extremely low cost of the handpump (approximately US $15) and pvc tubewell installation (approximately US $30-45) and the large economic return from small plot irrigation together make this technology an excellent investment for farmers in areas where the water table is shallow (15 feet or less). The Rower pump is probably one of the most important agricultural tools invented in the last 20 years.
Readers seeking information on the Rower pump can write to the manufacturer (MAWTS) for a brochure with technical details. Some of the same material is reproduced in Handpumps Testing and Development: Progress Report on Field and Laboratory Testing (see review). The results of an extensive laboratory test are described in Laboratory Testing of Handpumps for Developing Countries: Final Technical Report (see review). The relevant pages from both of these books are reproduced in the A.T. Microfiche Library as Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-368.
Chinese Chain and Washer Pumps, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-349, booklet, 49 pages, by S. Watt, 1976, out of print in 1985.
"This publication contains 21 versions of the chain and washer water lifting device, displayed at the 1958 Peking Agricultural Exhibition, in China. Each version of the pump was designed and built by separate communes, using local materials, skills and tools. A description of each pump with performance figures was written up in the simple information sheets that have been literally translated for this publication. The drawings presented are on the information sheets, and have been copied to allow anyone with a basic understanding of mechanics to build one of the devices; construction details are not included in this publication."
Each pump design listed has information on the rate of pumping and a summary of the construction method and materials. The introduction describes the principles of operation of chain and washer pumps, components of the pumps, design factors, and power sources available for water pumping (human, animal, wind, solar, and electric). The appendix includes 5 more pump designs, from India, France and Britain.
Community Water Supply: The Handpump Option, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-371, book, 202 pages, by Saul Arlosoroff, Gerhard Tschannerl, et. al., UNDP/World Bank, 1987, $9.95 from World Bank Publications, Box 7247-8619, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19170-8619, USA.
A nice, thorough discussion of the requirements for VLOM (village-level operation and maintenance) of handpumps. The authors explore choice of technology and its reliability.
The book addresses the planning of projects to install hand pumps, including maintenance, well sinking, and finance. The technology section reviews the history of handpumps, lists factors that affect performance, and suggests guidelines for good design of pumps that are likely to do well under village conditions. The hand pump compendium describes and assesses dozens of pumps from around the world.
Water-Pumping Devices: A Handbook for Users and Choosers, Available in the AT Library. INDEX CODE MF 14-370, book, 196 pages, by Peter Fraenkel, 1986 (reprinted 1990), FAO/ ITDG, £12.95 from ITDG.
Since irrigation has a dramatic effect on agricultural production, irrigation devices are usually the single most productive investment that can be made in small-scale agriculture. There are a great many different small water-lifting devices, traditional ones that often could be improved and modern ones that could be simplified to make them more affordable. This book does a nice job of reviewing them all in one place, making this an excellent starting place for comparing and choosing among them. Waterwheels, engine-driven pumps, hand- and foot-operated pumps, and solar pumps are all covered.
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